Active mobility is widely recognized as a strategic domain in advancing sustainable mobility and facilitating a transition from car-dominated to human-centered mobility. In recent years, it has therefore attracted growing attention in urban studies and urban policy-making. Nevertheless, within the literature of the urban design discipline, a clear and coherent account of how urban design contributes to the development of active mobility has yet to be articulated. Compared to related fields such as mobility studies, public health, and the social sciences, urban design, as an independent discipline and professional field, appears to have produced a less distinct and identifiable body of knowledge regarding its specific role in developing walking and cycling as key modes of human-centered mobility. The aim of this study is to conceptualize how the role of urban design in the development of active mobility has been framed in the literature. This paper addresses two main research questions: “What role does urban design, as an independent discipline and profession, play in the development of active mobility?” and “How can this role be articulated in the form of a comprehensive and integrated framework?” Drawing on a review of the literature published between 2000 and 2025, the fragmented body of knowledge on the relationship between urban design and active mobility is examined and analytically organized into three main clusters: “networks and quality of spatial–physical infrastructure,” “subjective experiences and perceptual and behavioral factors,” and “policy-making, governance, and participation.” The themes, approaches, and challenges associated with each cluster are then discussed. Finally, in order to contribute to the formation and strengthening of the knowledge base of Iranian urban design studies in the field of active mobility, key directions for future research are proposed and elaborated.
Highlights
This study unpacks the role of urban design in developing active mobility.
Urban design requires interdisciplinary perspectives and a reevaluation of its theories and practices in relation to active mobility.
This study proposes specific research agenda for Iranian urban design studies, contributing to the development of a new body of knowledge in this field.
Adkins, A., Dill, J., Luhr, G., & Neal, M. (2012). Unpacking walkability: Testing the influence of urban design features on perceptions of walking environment attractiveness. Journal of Urban Design,17(4), 499–510. https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809.2012.706365
Alexandrakis, J. (2021). Cycling towards sustainability: The transformative potential of urban design thinking in a sustainable living lab. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 9, 100269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2020.100269
Alfonzo, M., Boarnet, M. G., Day, K., McMillan, T., & Anderson, C. L. (2008). The relationship of neighbourhood built environment features and adult parents' walking. Journal of Urban Design, 13(1), 29–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/13574800701803456
Allen, H., & Nolmark, H. (2022). Active transportation, the ultimate low carbon way to travel—A review of international research and education. Frontiers in Sustainable Cities, 4, https://doi.org/10.3389/frsc.2022.824909
Ameli, S. H., Hamidi, S., Garfinkel-Castro, A., & Ewing, R. (2015). Do better urban design qualities lead to more walking in Salt Lake City, Utah? Journal of Urban Design, 20(3), 393–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809.2015.1041894
Ardalan, M., Sajjadzadeh, H., & Izadi, M. S. (2021). A spatial development model for enhancing the environmental quality of urban pedestrian streets with a context-oriented approach (Case study: Bu-Ali pedestrian street, Hamedan). Journal of Environmental Studies, 46(2), 255–274. https://doi.org/10.22059/jes.2021.300213.1007994 [In Persian]
Azadeh, S. R., Shafiei Haghnashenas, M., & Khaksar Shahmirzadi, S. (2020). Sustainable urban development planning through optimal bicycle route selection using quantitative models: A case study of Rasht metropolis. Journal of Urban Ecology Research, 11(21), 43–58. https://doi.org/10.30473/grup.2020.7471 [In Persian]
Badland, H., & Schofield, G. (2005). Transport, urban design, and physical activity: An evidence-based update. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 10(3), 177–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2004.12.001
Black, P., & Street, E. (2014). The power of perceptions: Exploring the role of urban design in cycling behaviours and healthy ageing. Transportation Research Procedia, 4, 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2014.11.006
Boarnet, M., Greenwald, M. J., & Mcmillan, T. (2008). Walking, urban design, and health. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 27(3), 341–358. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456x07311073
Bojari, P., Khatami, S. M., & Ranjbar, E. (2011). Knowledge production of urban designers in Iran: A statistical analysis of articles, theses, books, sessions, and urban conferences in Tehran. Journal of Urban and Rural Management, 19(60), 135–158. [In Persian]
Bollenbach, L., Kanning, M., & Niermann, C. (2024). Qualitative exploration of determinants of active mobility and social participation in Urban neighborhoods: individual perceptions over objective factors? Archives of Public Health, 82(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-024-01408-z
Boonpan, T., & Buddhimedhee, K. (2025). The impact of urban design on bicycle usage: A case study of Kyoto’s bicycle-friendly infrastructure. Journal of Urban Design. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809.2025.2555183
Buffoli, M., Capolongo, S., Boati, L., & Rebecchi, A. (2020). Urban health and physical activity: How urban design can improve cycling. European Journal of Public Health, 30(Supplement_5), ckaa166.096. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckaa166.096
Cambra, P., & Moura, F. (2020). How does walkability change relate to walking behavior change? Effects of a street improvement in pedestrian volumes and walking experience. Journal of Transport & Health, 16, 100797. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2019.100797
Caris, E., & Cao, M. (2024). Investigating contestation around neighbourhood scale active travel infrastructure policy. Transport Policy, 159, 95–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2024.10.007
Cook, S., Stevenson, L., Aldred, R., Kendall, M., & Cohen, T. (2022). More than walking and cycling: What is ‘active travel’? Transport Policy, 126, 151-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2022.07.015
Ding, D., Luo, M., Infante, M. F. P., Gunn, L., Salvo, D., Zapata-Diomedi, B., Smith, B., Bellew, W., Bauman, A., Nau, T., & Nguyen, B. (2024). The co-benefits of active travel interventions beyond physical activity: a systematic review. The Lancet Planetary Health, 8(10), e790–e803. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2542-5196(24)00201-8
Dogan, T., Yang, Y., Samaranayake, S., & Saraf, N. (2020). Urbano: A tool to promote active mobility modeling and amenity analysis in urban design. Technology Architecture + Design, 4(1), 92–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/24751448.2020.1705716
Dunlap, R, Rose, J, H. Standridge, S and Pruitt, C. (2020). Experiences of urban cycling: emotional geographies of people and place, Leisure Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2020.1720787
Ewing, R., & Handy, S. (2009). Measuring the unmeasurable: Urban design qualities related to walkability. Journal of Urban Design, 14(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/13574800802451155
Fathi, S., Sajadzadeh, H., Sheshkal, F. M., Aram, F., Pinter, G., Felde, I., & Mosavi, A. (2020). The role of urban morphology design on enhancing physical activity and public health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(7), 2359. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072359
Fernandez, K. V. (2019). Critically Reviewing Literature: A Tutorial for New Researchers. Australasian Marketing Journal, 27(3), 187-196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ausmj.2019.05.001
Fernández-Aguilar, C., & Brosed-Lázaro, M. (2023). Effectiveness of mobility and urban sustainability measures in improving citizen health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(3), 2649. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032649
Fitch-Polse, D., & Agarwal, S. (2025). The benefits of active transportation interventions: A review of the evidence. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 18(1), 77–122. https://doi.org/10.5198/jtlu.2025.2468
Forsyth, A. (2015). What is a walkable place? The walkability debate in urban design. Urban Design International, 20(4), 274–292. https://doi.org/10.1057/udi.2015.22
Forsyth, A., & Krizek, K. (2011). Urban design: Is there a distinctive view from the bicycle? Journal of Urban Design, 16(4), 531–549. https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809.2011.586239
Giles-Corti, B., Bull, F., Knuiman, M., McCormack, G. R., Van Niel, K. P., Timperio, A., Christian, H., Foster, S., Divitini, M. L., Middleton, N., & Boruff, B. (2013). The influence of urban design on neighbourhood walking following residential relocation: Longitudinal results from the RESIDE study. Social Science & Medicine, 77, 20–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.10.016
Giles-Corti, B., Moudon, A. V., Lowe, M., et al. (2022). What next for the creating healthy and sustainable city indicators? Framework and next steps. The Lancet Global Health, 10(6), e919-e926. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(22)00070-5
Gössling, S., & McRae, S. (2022). Subjectively safe cycling infrastructure: New insights for urban designs. Journal of Transport Geography, 101, 103340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2022.103340
Götschi, T., Kahlmeier, S., Castro, A., & Brand, C. (2020). Integrated impact assessment of active travel. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(20), 7361. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207361
Grant, M.J. & Booth, A. (2009). A typology of reviews: an analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies. Health Information & Libraries Journal, 26: 91-108. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x
Hackl, R., Raffler, C., Friesenecker, M., Kramar, H., Kalasek, R., Soteropoulos, A., Wolf-Eberl, S., Posch, P., & Tomschy, R. (2019). Promoting active mobility: Evidence-based decision-making using statistical models. Journal of Transport Geography, 80(102541), 102541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2019.102541
Hagen, O. H., & Rynning, M. K. (2021). Promoting cycling through urban planning and development: A qualitative assessment of bikeability. Urban, Planning and Transport Research, 9(1), 257–277. https://doi.org/10.1080/21650020.2021.1938195
Haj Foroush, S. D., & Sarayi, M. H. (2024). Feasibility of bicycle routes and their impact on creating a bicycle-friendly city: A case study of the Health Road in Yazd. Sustainable City Journal, 7(1), 39–56. https://doi.org/10.22034/jsc.2022.328466.1595 [In Persian]
Holzapfel, H. (2015). Urbanism and Transport: Building Blocks for Architects and City and Transport Planners. Routledge.
Hull, A., & O’Holleran, C. (2014). Bicycle infrastructure: Can good design encourage cycling? Urban, Planning and Transport Research, 2(1), 369–406. https://doi.org/10.1080/21650020.2014.955210
Jensen, Wyatt A., Stump, Tammy K., Brown, Barbara B., Werner, Carol M., & Smith, Ken R. (2017). Walkability, complete streets, and gender: Who benefits most? Health & Place, 48, 80–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2017.09.007
Johansson, M., Sternudd, C., & Kärrholm, M. (2016). Perceived urban design qualities and affective experiences of walking. Journal of Urban Design, 21(2), 256–275. https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809.2015.1133225
Kong, H., Wu, J., & Li, P. (2024). Impacts of active mobility on individual health mediated by physical activities. Social Science & Medicine (1982. Print), 116834–116834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.116834
Koszowski, C., Gerike, R., Hubrich, S., Götschi, T., Pohle, M., & Wittwer, R. (2019). Active mobility: Bringing together transport planning, urban planning, and public health. Towards User-Centric Transport in Europe, 149–171. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99756-8_11
Lättman, K., & Otsuka, N. (2024). Sustainable development of urban mobility through active travel and public transport. Sustainability, 16(2), 534. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16020534
Learnihan, V., Van Niel, K., Giles-Corti, B., & Knuiman, M. (2011). Effect of scale on the links between walking and urban design. Geographical Research, 49(2), 183–191. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-5871.2011.00689.x
Lee, J. S., Zegras, P. C., & Ben-Joseph, E. (2013). Safely active mobility for urban baby boomers: The role of neighborhood design. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 61, 153–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2013.05.008
Liu, G., Krishnamurthy, S., & van Wesemael, P. (2021). Conceptualizing cycling experience in urban design research: A systematic literature review. Applied Mobilities, 6(2), 200–223. https://doi.org/10.1080/23800127.2018.1494347
Mehta, V. (2008). Walkable streets: pedestrian behavior, perceptions and attitudes. Journal of Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability, 1(3), 217-245. https://doi.org/10.1080/17549170802529480
Mehta, V. (2013). The Street: A Quintessential Social Public Space. Routledge.
Mizdrak, A., Tatah, L., Mueller, N., Shaw, C., & Woodcock, J. (2023). Assessing the health impacts of changes in active transport: An updated systematic review. Journal of Transport & Health, 33, 101702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2023.101702
Nazarpoor, M., & Glaser, M. (2025). The role of human infrastructure in developing cycling in car-centric environments: Lessons from Tehran. In A. K. Srivastava & I. A. Srivastava (Eds.), Cities: Inclusive, liveable, and sustainable. Routledge.
Nazarpour, M. (2020). Mobile autoethnography as a method for understanding lived experiences of urban mobility. Urban Design Discourse, 1(4), 1–11. [In Persian]
Nazarpour, M., Ranjbar, E., & te Brömmelstroet, M. (2025a). Understanding the lived experience of urban cycling: A critical review toward proposing a research agenda. Journal of Space and Place Studies in the City, 9(36). https://doi.org/10.22034/jspr.2025.2067653.1149 [In Persian]
Nazarpour, M., Ranjbar, E., & te Brömmelstroet, M. (2025b). Understanding the lived body in the experience of urban cycling: An autoethnographic study in Amsterdam. Iranian Journal of Urban Design Studies, 2(1), 221–254. https://doi.org/10.22099/iuds.2025.54547.1050 [In Persian]
Nello-Deakin, S & Nikolaeva, A. (2020). The human infrastructure of a cycling city: Amsterdam through the eyes of international newcomers, Urban Geography. https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2019.1709757
Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J. (2020). Urban and transport planning pathways to carbon neutral, liveable and healthy cities; A review of the current evidence. Environment International, 140,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105661
Nooraei, H., Ramazani, S., Badrizadeh, M., Hassanzadeh, N., Shamohammadi, M., & Abdollahi, M. (2023). Evaluation of cycling routes in terms of movement and accessibility using the MABAC method (Case study: Districts 1 and 3 of Isfahan). Spatial Planning Quarterly, 13(3), 29–54. https://doi.org/10.22108/sppl.2023.136759.1702 [In Persian]
Papageorgiou, G. N., & Tsappi, E. (2024). Development of an Active Transportation Framework Model for Sustainable Urban Development. Sustainability, 16(17), 7546–7546. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177546
Pasha, M., Rifaat, S., Tay, R., & de Barros, A. D. (2016). Urban design and planning influences on the share of trips taken by cycling. Journal of Urban Design, 21(6), 734–750. https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809.2016.1184567
Pearson, L., Page, M. J., Gerhard, R., Clarke, N. J., Winters, M., Bauman, A., Arogundade, L., & Beck, B. (2024). Effectiveness of interventions for modal shift to walking and bike riding: A systematic review with meta-analysis. medRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.07.29.24311197
Pucher, J., Dill, J., & Handy, S. L. (2010). Infrastructure, programs, and policies to increase bicycling: An international review. Preventive Medicine, 50, S106–S125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2009.07.028
Rainieri, G., Carra, M., & Richiedei, A. (2024). Evaluating active mobility: Enhancing the framework for social sustainability. TeMA Journal of Land Use, Mobility and Environment. https://doi.org/10.6093/1970-9870/10912
Rashtbari, M., Latifi, G., & Rafiian, M. (2022). A comparative analysis of the role of pedestrian streets in enhancing environmental quality (Case studies: 15 Khordad Street and Saf Street, Tehran). Urban Design Discourse, 3(1), 17–38. [In Persian]
Rérat, P., & Schmassmann, A. (2024). Build it and they will come? The effects of a new infrastructure on cycling practices and experiences. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 25, 101121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2024.101121
Rodrigues, P. F., Alvim-Ferraz, M. C. M., Martins, F. G., Saldiva, P., Sá, T. H., & Sousa, S. I. V. (2020). Health economic assessment of a shift to active transport. Environmental Pollution, 258, 113745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113745
Saelens, B., Sallis, J., & Frank, L. (2003). Environmental correlates of walking and cycling: Findings from the transportation, urban design, and planning literatures. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 25(2), 80–91. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm2502_03
San-Juan-Escudero, A., Ballesteros-Peña, S., Fernández-Aedo, I., Sánchez, S. C., Fernandez-Alonso, J., Gullón, P., Franco, M., & Gravina, L. (2025). Exploring urban design’s impact on physical activity: A participatory photovoice study across socioeconomically diverse neighborhoods. Landscape and Urban Planning, 254, 105334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2025.105334
Scrivano, L., Tessari, A., Marcora, S. M., & Manners, D. N. (2023). Active mobility and mental health: A scoping review towards a healthier world. Cambridge Prisms: Global Mental Health, 1-44. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2023.74
Smith, S.J. (2016). Phenomenology of Movement and Place. In: Peters, M. (eds) Encyclopedia of Educational Philosophy and Theory. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-532-7_92-1
Stefánsdóttir, H. (2014). A theoretical perspective on how bicycle commuters might experience aesthetic features of urban space. Journal of Urban Design, 19(4), 496–516. https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809.2014.923746
Suslowicz, J., & Hillnhütter, H. (2025). From temporariness to mobility futures: A review of progress in tactical urbanism as an active travel planning tool. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 32, 101510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2025.101510
Taghvaei, M., & Fathi, E. (2011). Criteria for location selection and design of bicycle routes (With emphasis on the city of Isfahan). Applied Sociology, 22(3), 135–152. [In Persian]
Timmons, S., et al., 2024. Active travel infrastructure design and implementation: insights from behavioral science. WIREs Clim. Change 15 (3), e878. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/wcc.878
Toner, A., Lewis, J. S., & Stanhope, J. (2021). Prescribing active transport as a planetary health intervention. Physical Therapy Reviews, 26(1), 25–33. Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.1080/10833196.2021.1876598
Ullmann, D., Kreimeier, J., & Kipke, H. (2022). Pedaling through a virtually redesigned city: Evaluation of traffic planning and urban design factors influencing bicycle traffic. Journal of Urban Mobility, 2, 100032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urbmob.2022.100032
Wang, C.-H., Akar, G., & Guldmann, J.-M. (2015). Do your neighbors affect your bicycling choice? A spatial probit model for bicycling to The Ohio State University. Journal of Transport Geography, 42, 122–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.12.003
Wu, J., Wang, B., Wang, R., Ta, N., & Chai, Y. (2021). Active travel and the built environment: A theoretical model and multidimensional evidence. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 94, 103029. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.103029
Yang, Y., Wu, X., Zhou, P., Gou, Z., & Lu, Y. (2019). Towards a cycling-friendly city: An updated review of the associations between built environment and cycling behaviors (2007–2017). Journal of Transport & Health, 14, 100613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2019.100613
Zhong, J.-t., Liu, W., Niu, B., Lin, X., & Deng, Y. (2022). Role of built environments on physical activity and health promotion: A review and policy insights. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 950348. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.950348
Nazarpoor, M. (2026). Unpacking the Role of Urban Design in the Development of Active Mobility: A Critical Review of the Literature and Implications for Urban Design Studies in Iran. Iranian Urban Design Studies, 2(2), 335-356. doi: 10.22099/iuds.2026.55464.1131
MLA
Nazarpoor, M. . "Unpacking the Role of Urban Design in the Development of Active Mobility: A Critical Review of the Literature and Implications for Urban Design Studies in Iran", Iranian Urban Design Studies, 2, 2, 2026, 335-356. doi: 10.22099/iuds.2026.55464.1131
HARVARD
Nazarpoor, M. (2026). 'Unpacking the Role of Urban Design in the Development of Active Mobility: A Critical Review of the Literature and Implications for Urban Design Studies in Iran', Iranian Urban Design Studies, 2(2), pp. 335-356. doi: 10.22099/iuds.2026.55464.1131
CHICAGO
M. Nazarpoor, "Unpacking the Role of Urban Design in the Development of Active Mobility: A Critical Review of the Literature and Implications for Urban Design Studies in Iran," Iranian Urban Design Studies, 2 2 (2026): 335-356, doi: 10.22099/iuds.2026.55464.1131
VANCOUVER
Nazarpoor, M. Unpacking the Role of Urban Design in the Development of Active Mobility: A Critical Review of the Literature and Implications for Urban Design Studies in Iran. Iranian Urban Design Studies, 2026; 2(2): 335-356. doi: 10.22099/iuds.2026.55464.1131
)